Teaching is a social process therefore it is difficult to arrive at the precise definition of the term. The reason is that the teaching is influenced by social conditions on the one hand, on the other and human element is also influenced it to a great extent. In brief, the term can be precisely defined in the political and social backgrounds of a country. The educationists have classified the process of teaching in the following categories on the basis of existing socio-political system in a country:
Categories of Teaching (Based on Political Systems)
1. Meaning of Teaching in Autocracy
In auto-cracy, all the powers are vested in autocratic leader. Hence such type of political conditions lead to teacher-dominated teaching process. The teacher has the ideal position in his class. He enforces strict discipline and imposed his ideas on the students. In such a condition, the students are only passive listeners. They do not debate or discuss anything with the teacher during teaching process. Most of the time the teachers appear to be more active and the students work as a fearful listeners. Ultimately, the teacher exercises his all powers and cannot afford any criticism from the students. Morrison (1934) has explained the teaching process in autocratic atmosphere as following:
“This teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality and a less mature one which is designed to further the education of the later.”
2. Meaning of Teaching in Democracy
Demo-cracy is based on mutual human relations. In democracy every individual has its own importance and his will pave the future path of progress. In real sense, he enjoys
all freedom. Naturally teaching when put in democratic mould, it also takes the democratic shape. In this teaching process-the teacher and the students both remain active which promote verbal and non-verbal interaction between the two. Here the teacher also enjoys full freedom of asking questions, giving answers, and discussing the difficult points with students. Democratic teaching is the exercise where the teacher and taught influence each other to a great extent.
Gage has given the following explanation with this regard :
“Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behaviour potential of amother person.”
Edmund Amid on (1967) explains teaching in democracy as
“Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room talk which takes place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activity.”
3. Meaning of Teaching in Laissez faire
Here the teacher works as a friend and facilitate more and more opportunities of learning so that the students can solve out their own problems. The teacher gives emphasis on creativity of the students instead of their routine functions.
Brubacher has explained teaching in such a environment as below:
“Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which there are gaps and obstructions which an individual will seek to overcome and from which he will learn in the course of doing so.”
Under this environment, it is evident that the students are more active, the teacher merely works as facilitator and creates such situations where the students can solve their own problems.
Some Definitions of Teaching
The definitions of teaching are here categorised in two groups for the convenience of the readers:
(1) Dictionary Meaning of Teaching
Dictionary Meaning of Teaching According to Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical terms:
“The art of assisting another to learn providing of information and of appropriate situations, condi-tions or activities designed to facilitate learning.”
According to World Book Encyclopaedia:
“The process by which one person helps others achieve knowledge, skills and aptitudes.”
According to Little Oxford Dictionary:
“Impart knowledge or skill, give instruction or lessons, instil and inspire with.”
(2) Popular Definitions
According to Gage –
“Teaching is an art of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in which other person can or will behave.”
According to Ryans
“Teaching is concerned with the activities which are concerned with the guidance or direction of the learning of others.”
According to Skinner
“Teaching is the arrange-ment of contingencies of reinforcement.”
Characteristics of Good Teaching
The main characteristics of good & effective teaching are as following:
1. It gives desirable informations.
2. It creates self-motivation for learning.
3. Effective planning is essential for good teaching.
4. The students remain active in good teaching.
5. It focusses on selected information.
6. It is based on democratic ideals.
7. It is sympathetic and full of pity.
8. It is directional in nature.
9. It is based on the co-operation of teacher and students.
10 It is based on previous knowledge of teacher.
11 It is progressive.
12. It includes all sorts of teachers performances and teaching methods.
13. It produces emotional stability.
14. It aims to help students adapt and adjust effectively to their surrounding environment.
15. It is diagnostic and therapeutic in nature.
16. It is the best medium for preparing the next genera-tion for the changing world order.
17. It enhances the potentialities of the students.
18. The teacher plays the role of a philosopher, a guide, and a friend, inspiring students with wisdom, support, and direction in their learning journey.
19. The teacher’s class room behaviour includes both direct and indirect behaviour.
20. It reflects harmony between teacher and the students.
Nature and Components of Teaching
The process of imparting knowledge is called teaching. It consists of all the activities which enhances learning. It is the reason that teaching is termed as a social instrument to bring out change in society. It can be demonstrated through the following diagram:
Fig. A Relationship among Teaching. School and Society.
Dr. S. K. Mitra (Ex-chairperson NCERT) explains teaching as –
“Teaching is the essential act of a teacher, mainly carried out within the environment of school or college or university or institution of society. There, the teacher does a service (an act of teaching) to his clients (students) either individually or in groups and this he does in a formal, systematic manner……….. By and large, one thinks of teaching as on act of instruction in the formal situation of a classroom.’
In a general sense, the terms teaching, instructions and learning are used interchangeably but in technical sense those have lots of differences which can be represented in the following diagram:
Fig. A Relationship among Teaching, Instruction and Learning.
Green (1964) have discussed the concept of Teaching Topology which is exhibited in the following flow-diagram:
Fig. Flow Diagram : Representing Teaching Topology.
in his teaching topology green has elaborated this continuum of teaching where all the four ingredients viz.,conditioning, training, instruction and indoctrination are fused in the act of teaching.
Mc Donald’s Concept of Teaching (1965)
Mc Donald had applied system Analysis in order to explain the nature of teaching. He had broadly cate-gorised the process of teaching in the following four elements:
(i) Curriculum
(ii) Instruction
(iii) Teaching
(iv) Learning
Besides these the overlapping zones in the given diagram represents its various congruences like,
(v) Concomitant learning
(vi) Teacher Modification Behaviour
(vii) Inservice Experience
(viii, ix & x) Pupil Teacher Planning Experiences.
Fig. Mc Donald’s Explanation of Teaching Process
Types of Teaching
Teaching types can be summarised as following:
1. On the Basis of Teaching Objectives:
The teaching types are:
(1) Cognitive Brain Mechanism
(2) Affective = Heart Mechanism
(3) Psycho-motor = Motor Mechanism
2. On the Basis of Teaching Levels:
The teaching types are:
(1) Memory Level
(3) Reflective Level
(2) Understanding Level
3. On the Basis of Existing Political System:
The teaching types are:
(1) Autocratic
(2) Democratic
(3) Laissez-faire
4. On the Basis of Nature of Teaching:
The teaching types are:
(1) Descriptive
(2) Diagnostic
(3) Remedial
5. On the Basis of Educational Process:
The teaching types are:
(1) Presentation
(2) Demonstration
(3) Action
6. On the Basis of Educational Management:
The teaching types are:
(1) Formal
(2) Non-formal
(3) Informal
Variables of Teaching and their Functions
The teaching process has the following three variables:
Fig. Variables of Teaching Process
1. Teacher: The Independent variable –
As an independent variable the teacher engaged in organisation, planning and management of teaching in the class.
2. Student: The Dependent variable –
The student as an dependent variable engaged in activities desired as per the teaching in the class.
3. Curriculum: The Intervening variable –
The curriculum establishes the instruction between the teacher and the students as an intervening variable. It also enforces the teaching methods as per demand of the nature of curriculum.
Functions of Teaching Variables
The teaching variables have carried out the follow-ing three functions:
1. Diagnosis
2. Prescription
3. Evaluation
1. Diagnostic Function –
Basically the independent variable remains more active in diagnostic process. The teacher takes the following decisions in this stage:
(i) Analysis of teaching problems
(ii) Entering behaviour of pupils
(iii) Exploration of individual differences
(iv) Task Analysis
(v) Analysis of content in view of types of learning.
2. Prescriptive Function –
These functions are related with the common judgemental process going on between the teacher and students in order to decide the teaching strategies and tactics.
This function leads to bring favourable changes in one’s behaviour therefore it gives emphasis on feed-back devices.
3. Evaluation Function –
Evaluation is the most important ingredient of teaching. It focusses on realization of the objectives of teaching. It also measures the effectiveness of prescriptive functions.
It has the following two elements:
(i) Construction of criterion test
(ii) Evaluation of changes in behaviour.
Teaching Continuum
Teaching continnum can be break down into its four basic elements as following :
Comparative Table of the Four Elements of Teaching
| Discriminating Points | Conditioning | Training | Instruction | Indoctrination |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aims | Behavioural change and habit-formation | Behavioural change and development of skills | Transmission of and development of knowledge | Changes in belief and development of values |
| Teaching | For development of typical habits | For development of typical skills | For imparting knowledge | For internalizing the abstract knowledge |
| Teaching Aspect | Psychomotor or Low Level | Psychomotor Higher Level | Cognitive | Affective |
| Nature of Learning | Signal Learning | Chain Learning | Multi-Discriminating Learning | Laws and Principles of Learning |
| Teaching Level | Memory Level (Mechanical) | Memory Level (Mechanical) | Understanding Level | Reflective Level |
| Application | Training (for children and animals) | Training (children and animals) | Teaching (in schools) | Higher Education (Advanced Institutes) |
| Examples | Habit-formation in small children about alphabet and counting | Reading, writing and speaking training | Concepts and principles | Attitudes and values |
Phases or Operations of Teaching
The teaching is taking place in the following three phases:
1. Pre-active Phase
2. Intermediate Phase
3. Post-active Phase
1. Pre-active Phase
The teaching plan is being prepared under this phase of teaching. All the tasks performed by a teacher before entering into the class are governed in this phase of teaching. The important activities carried out under this phase are as following:
(i) Determining the objectives of teaching.
(ii) To take judgement about the curriculum (content for teaching).
(iii) To make orderly arrangement for presentation.
(iv) To make judgement about teaching strategies and tactics.
(v) To develop the strategies for specific content.
2. Inter-active Phase
All the activities a teacher carries out after entering the classroom come under the interactive phase of teaching. This phase mainly focuses on presenting and delivering the lesson content effectively to engage students in the learning process.
It includes the following activities:
(i) The insight about the size number and appearance of the class.
(ii) Diagnosis of the students.blo
(iii) Action-Reaction mechanisms in a class.
(a) Selection of stimuli.
(b) Presentation of stimuli.
(c) Application of tactics.
(d) Extension of tactics.
3. Post-active Phase
It is related with evaluation aspect of teaching. Without evaluation teaching is an incomplete process. After the stipulated time of teaching the teacher evaluates student, behaviour in order to judge the realization of the objectives.
This phase comprises of the following steps :
(i) Change in behaviour through teaching.
(ii) Selection of adequate evaluation procedures.
(iii) The decision-making process about different activities on the basis of evaluation.
(iv) Attainment of teaching objectives.
Importance of the Phases or Operations of Teaching
All the teaching activities are carried out in order to bring desirable changes in student’s behaviour. The importance of the phases of teaching can be easily understood with the help of the following points:
1. The teacher can get the insight into various activities which are being carried out by him before and after entering into a class.
2. The inservice teachers can be trained in new skills and bring desirable changes in their teaching behaviour after getting the knowledge of teaching activities.
3. These activities support in designing the instructions because the teaching activities are completed through instruction.
4. Teaching operations play a vital role in successfully achieving the goals of various teaching activities.
5. The teaching phases or operations gives clarity about teaching variables.
6. The teaching operations lead towards the develop-ment of desirable learning conditions in the class room.
Basic Requirements of Teaching
The basic requirement of teaching is learning. If a learning does not take place, the teaching remains as an incomplete exercise. This is the reason that these concepts are used simultaneously.
According to Smith-The teaching is a process which gives birth to learning.”
Burton has elaborated the mutual relationship between teaching and learning as following:
1. Teaching and learning are the two basic operations of instruction. Therefore by developing a coordina-tion between these two elements one can make the effective teaching.
2. Teaching is a purposive process. Therefore after determining the objectives in a practical form, such activities of teaching can be organised which may help in bringing desirable changes in behaviour.
3. The learning theories can be led in the development of teaching theories.
4. The psychological elements and forces can be successfully used in teaching.
5. The application of Audio-visual aids can be used in teaching in realizing its objectives.OTZ300
Conditions of Learning: The Basis of Teaching
According to Robert Gagne:
“Teaching means arranging conditions of learning that are external to the learner. These conditions need to be constructed in a stage-by-stage, taking the account at each stage of the first acquired capabilities of the learner, the require-ments for retention for these capabilities.”
Robert Gagne has put forth the levelling of learning conditions in the following manner:
1. Stimulus – reaction
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2. Verbal Level
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3. Multi discrimination level
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4. Concept Learning
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5. Principle Learning
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6. Problem Learning
Models of Gagne’s Conditions of Learning
Gagne has explained the following eight conditions of Learning:
Signal Learning
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Stimulus-Response Learning
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Chain Learning
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Verbal Association
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Discrimination Learning
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Concept Learning
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Principle Learning
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Problem-solving Learning
1. Signal Learning-
It is based on Pavlovian conditioning. Here two stimuli are presented in a sequence in which one is called natural stimulus and other is called unnatural stimulus. Gradually the natural stimulus is substituted or added with unnatural stimulus in such a manner that it gives the natural response.
The Flow chart of this exercise has been displayed as under.
Flowchart: Pavlovian Conditioning
2. Stimulus-Response (S-R) Learning:
This concept is based on Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning, where a student’s response acts as a form of reinforcement. During teaching, the teacher designs an environment that encourages students to respond and validate their answers. Similar conditions are applied in programmed learning to promote active participation and effective learning.
3. Chain Learning:
Chain learning builds upon stimulus-response (S-R) learning as its foundation. According to Gilbert, when stimuli and responses are presented in a continuous sequence, it leads to the development of chain learning, allowing students to link concepts and skills step by step.
Gagne has identified two distinct types of chain learning, which are explained as follows:
(i) Verbal learning.
(ii) Non-verbal learning.
Generally in chain learning a teacher puts his content in a long chain of stimuli in order to transfer it to students in a smooth fashion.
4. Verbal Association Learning:
In verbal association learning, sequences of verbal responses are organized in a specific order. Each response serves as a clue to help students tackle more complex or higher-level learning tasks. For effective learning, a student must first understand the preceding unit before moving on to the next. This approach is especially useful in language teaching in schools.
Underwood has explained it as an essential conditon of learning.
5. Discriminating Learning:
Discriminative learning builds on both verbal and non-verbal chain learning. It focuses on helping students distinguish between different learning sequences, emphasizing comprehension and understanding rather than mere memorization.
6. Concept Learning:
Concept learning follows discriminative learning and focuses on helping students grasp and understand key concepts. Through this approach, children can naturally differentiate between various types of living and non-living objects. Teachers usually provide instructions at the comprehension level to foster effective concept formation in young learners.
7. Principle Learning:
Principle learning happens when two or more concepts are linked together, allowing students to understand the underlying principles connecting them. The teacher guides students’ behavior to help them internalize these principles, promoting higher-level analytical thinking. Teaching at this stage is best conducted at the reflective level to encourage deep understanding and critical thinking.
8. Problem solving Learning:
Problem-solving learning develops after students have mastered principle learning. At this stage, learners apply their understanding and originality to tackle new challenges, using the principles they have learned. This approach is essential for fostering critical thinking and independent problem-solving skills.
This type of learning also takes place at reflective level.
Basic Theories of Teaching : Theories of Learning
Cronbach explained that the learning theories lead towards the development of teaching theories. For justifying his opinion (assumption) Cronbach has given the following seven levels :
1. Situation
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2. Characteristics of Pupils
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3 .Goals
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4. Interpretation
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5. Action
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6. Consequences
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7. Reaction to Thwarting
